The making and breaking of port kembla Essay Example for Free

The making and breaking of port kembla Essay Locality and society are interlinked with worker communities as new labor is inducted in areas which are industrializing. The interaction between workers and communities is thus not constant and remains dynamic. As industrialization took place in the early 20th Century in Australia, workers communities grew around a predominantly agricultural hinterland. These got bigger each day and in turn threatened to displace local communities particularly the indigenous people who were unable to adapt to the changing environment. The emerging conflict led to creation of social institutions by workers in the form of unions to collectively bargain from a position of strength with the community. While this empowered worker communities as a whole, it had varying influences on the lives of workers within the community as well as at the work place. The post industrialization phase where production has been automated and has become far less labor intensive has added a new dimension to this relationship. By drawing upon the example of Port Kembla, the Australian steel township, Erik Eklund has successfully weaved together the historical narrative of interaction of the diverse forces which create a modern industrial society and how social forces enable some organizations to survive while others perish for lack of adaptability. Eklund’s social history of workers in Port Kembla very aptly describes the manner in which the working class fits into the community, the social institutions that the workers create to survive and flourish and the control that the workers gain over their own lives at work and in the community in the process. Port Kembla – The Social Environment Port Kembla is a classic case of emergence of an industrial society amidst the tectonic shifts that take place due to influence of many factors, global, local, war, peace and a depressed economy. Steel represents the primary agent of change in the industrial World. Port Kembla was the principal steel making area in Australia, where prominent steel makers had established their factories which had grown into large behemoths. But steel making is much more than just technology or organization of labor. It has many other facets such as creation of social classes, assimilation of outside forces, suppression of indigenous forces and resistance between these. The steel industry in Port Kembla underwent a number of changes over the years which in turn impacted the development of the community. Till the 1930’s the worker community relationship was mixed with a balanced influence of the informal non market economy and workers communities. However thereafter with the emergence of an industrial society the influence of class politics defined by the powerful role played by the unions which attempted to gain control of both the communities and the workers dominated the socio political panorama of Port Kembla. Global events such as the Depression, the World Wars, the global Depression and post War industrialization also had a powerful influence on community politics in Port Kembla. The creation of localities and their structures set the stage for discussion of class, locality and politics. The struggle waged by the indigenous people, the Kooris to survive the onslaught of industrialization in their native land is illustrative of the large scale social changes in Port Kembla which led to emergence of the supremacy of the Industrial Society in the post Second World War milieu. The final stage is the post industrial society; a process could lead to emergence of new social structures. The model of the workers in Port Kembla provides a successful portray of the social history of industrial society in Australia emerged over the years. Working Class and Overall Community Life The working class has emerged as a result of industrialization which has led to a large congregation of people working together in factories. There has been no other human activity which has brought together so many people in one location as production of goods through a machine economy. A study of the bureaucratic structure, the technology and external factors which influences work in factories and the interaction of the new work society which is formed due to redesigned occupational activity with the community provide an innate social perspective of this phenomenon in the industrial age. The working class emerges as a separate locality within the larger community; it gives them a sense of distinct identity. The co relationship between the working class and the community denoted is thus that of interdependency. However this relationship takes a long time to develop and cannot emerge merely by the artificial process of creating jobs. Jobs are just one part of the exercise of industrialization; it is the manner in which the working class and the community homogenize with each other that marks the holistic growth of an industry. This lesson stands out quite clearly through lucid portrayals of worker communities in Port Kembla. From the dirty, sooty, black image of steel furnaces which marked the early stages of industrialization in Port Kembla, it is seen that as the community grew so did the industry as well as the commercial establishments in the city. The social changes which brought about these linkages enabled a whole, â€Å"locality† of workers to emerge within the community. In turn the impact of local life and tenor on the emergence of the industrial society provides a fascinating perspective. The various waves that brought about change in the industry and concomitantly with the society also need to be well understood. Whether it is migration, gender awareness, a class struggle or redefining the identities of the locals, the working class fits into a local community’s life by creation of institutions for their own well being in the form of unions. Workers Social Institutions The workers needed to create support establishments to survive varied types of pressures, from capitalists, the depression in the economy and loss of jobs. They succeeded in creating adequate safety mechanisms to support themselves as a community. Port Kembla did not have many social institutions in the initial stages when industry was set up in the township. Thus there was a mixed culture with the establishment of Electrolytic Refining and Smelting (ERS) and Metal Manufacturers which carried on with the pre industrial age non formal institutions based on agriculture, fishery and hunting. But the growth of the steel industry under the leadership of BHP which established the Australian Iron and Steel led to creation of an industrial society. The congregation of labor in large numbers was implicit in creation of institutions by them for sustaining their rights and obtaining fair treatment. Unions were a natural corollary to industrialization in Port Kembla. The creation of unions was a safety mechanism that provided the labor working in the large steel factories a sense of security. This was the initial period of localism which soon came under threat from regionalism with the expansion of the steel industry linking Kembla with Wollongong. These forces attempted to displace gradually the locals who had focused on their own borough in the city and tried to create all encompassing institutions. On the social side, workers safety systems were also seen to be based on their kinship affiliation. This was more than evident in the early stages of migration of communities post Second World War as a large number of people from Eastern Europe, Greece and Italy as well as Vietnam and the Middle East came in to feed the expanded need of labor. These however remained a sub text within the larger text provided by the industrial associations of labor unions, which were the primary institutions for support created by workers in Kembla. Control of Workers Within and in the Community While the workers seem to have developed reasonable order in their working lives due to creation of unions, their influence within the community was relatively weaker. Thus while there was unity amongst the workers themselves due to unionized structure of their organization which was to provide a safety network, within the society there were many pressures. Firstly the worker community itself was divided into a large number of unions such as the AWU, the Federated Ironworkers, the South Coast Labor Council and also political parties as the Communist party which had a strong presence in Port Kembla. This division perhaps led to weakening the position of the unions as a whole in the community.

Lesser Sac Cystic Lymphangioma: Gastric Outlet Obstruction

Lesser Sac Cystic Lymphangioma: Gastric Outlet Obstruction Cystic Lymhangioma of the Lesser Sac in adult presenting with features of Gastric Outlet Obstruction A Case Report S Suresh Kumar Sri Aurobindo Prasad Das Vikram Kate Running title: Lesser sac cystic lymphangioma causing gastric outlet obstruction Key Words: Abdominal cystic Lymphangioma; Omental Bursa; Outlet Obstruction Article type: Case Report Section (speciality): Surgery- Gastrointestinal Surgery Abstract: Non- Structured (Case Report) ABSTRACT: Background: Cystic lymphangioma is a paediatric benign tumour, occurs commonly in head and neck region. Adult Intraabdominal lymphangiomas are uncommon and only few cases of lesser sac cystic lymphangioma are reported in the literature. Case presentation: We present a case of lesser sac cystic lymphangioma in a 26 year old lady who presented with features of gastric outlet obstruction. Clinical examination of the abdomen revealed 10 x 10 cm firm, non tender, mobile intraabdominal lump in the epigastrium. An upper gastrointestinal endoscopy showed possible external compression at the boy of the stomach. Ultrasound of abdomen demonstrated a multicystic lesion measuring 10.2 X 8 cm, with internal echoes in one locule. Contrast enhanced computed tomography of the abdomen showed a large multiloculated cystic lesion with hyper-dense content in the lesser sac extending up to the left lobe of the liver and indenting the stomach, lesser sac, and upper border of pancreas. On surgical exploration, a 10X8 cm multi cystic lesion with clear fluid was found in the lesser sac very close to the lesser curvature of stomach. The descending branches of left gastric which were found coursing through the cyst were ligated and the cyst was excised in Toto. Histopathological examination of the excised lesion showed features of cystic lymphangioma showing dilated lymphatic vessels with fibro-fatty tissue ingrained in the endothelial lining. Conclusion: Though intraabdominal cystic lymphangiomas are very rare, it should be considered in all atypical cases of gastric outlet obstruction. A reasonable knowledge about these benign lesions will aid in establishing the diagnosis and surgical management. Key Words: Abdominal cystic Lymphangioma; Omental Bursa; Outlet Obstruction Background Lymphagiomas are benign lesions generally occur as a result of lymphatic system malformation and infrequently reported after trauma. 90% of the cases are seen within the first two years of life and symptomatic presentation in adults is very rare. [1] Cystic lymphagiomas commonly involves neck and axilla but can occur anywhere in the body. Though Intraabdominal lymphangioma accounts for Case presentation A 26-year old lady presented to surgical outpatient department with complaints of early satiety, vomiting few hours after food intake and vague fullness of upper abdomen. She also had features of dyspepsia for the past one year. She had developed pain and had a feeling of a mobile lump in the upper abdomen for the past one month. There was no pancreatitis episode before. General physical examination was unremarkable. Clinical examination of the abdomen revealed 10 x 10 cm lump in the epigastrium which was firm in consistency. The lump was non tender, freely mobile and intra-abdominal. Investigations The haemogram and biochemical profiles were within normal limits. An upper gastrointestinal endoscopy was done which showed normal mucosa of stomach with possible external compression at the boy of the stomach. Ultrasound of abdomen was suggestive of a multicystic lesion measuring 10 X 8 cm, with internal echoes in one locule, present superior to pancreas adjacent to the left lobe of the liver. Rest of abdomen was unremarkable. Contrast enhanced computed tomography of the abdomen showed a large multiloculated cystic lesion measuring 10.2 X 8 cm with hyper dense content in some loculi in the lesser sac extending up to the left lobe of the liver and indenting the stomach, lesser sac, and upper border of pancreas with a few branches of left gastric vessels coursing through it. (Figure: 1) Correlating the clinical, USG and CECT abdomen findings a diagnosis of possible lymphangioma was made and the patient was planned for exploratory laparotomy as the symptoms were persisting. Surgical management On surgical exploration, a 10X8 cm multi cystic lesion with clear fluid was found in the lesser sac very close to the lesser curvature of stomach. (Figure: 2) The descending branches of left gastric which were found coursing through the cyst were ligated and the cyst was excised in Toto. (Figure: 3) A drain was placed in lesser sac and abdomen was closed in layers. Outcome and follow- up Postoperative course was uneventful. The drain was removed on the 3nd postoperative day and the patient was discharged on seventh post operative day. Histopathological examination of the excised lesion showed features of cystic lymphangioma showing dilated lymphatic vessels with fibro-fatty tissue ingrained in the endothelial lining. (Figure: 4) Patient was followed up at one month, six months, one year and two year after surgery. On each visit, clinical examination and USG was done which showed no evidence of recurrence. The lady is presently on regular follow up for past 2 years with no evidence recurrence till date. Discussion Intra-abdominal cystic lymphangiomas are uncommon benign tumours that can involve the mesentery, omentum, colon, spleen, pelvis, groin, and retroperitoneum [5, 6]. We had a case of cystic lymphangioma in the lesser sac which is very rare. Cystic lymphangiomas are considered to originate from malformed or malpositioned lymphatic tissue. Factors such as abdominal trauma, inflammatory process, lymphatic obstruction due to radiation therapy or surgery may lead to secondary formation of such tumors. Our patient did not have any of the mentioned inciting factors; the cause was probably congenital which had manifested late in life. Commonly known to present in childhood, lymphagiomas sometimes remain asymptomatic until late adulthood, and are discovered during evaluation of vague and chronic nonspecific symptoms like anorexia, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and weight loss, which are secondary to mass effect [4]. This was seen in our patient who had early satiety and vomiting after food intake probably due to mass effect and had a vague feeling of mass in the abdomen. Other ways of presentation such as acute abdomen, mimicking acute appendicitis has also been reported [3]. Contrast CT done in our patient revealed multicystic lesion measuring 10.2 X 8 cm, present superior to pancreas, in the lesser sac adjacent to the left lobe of the liver. Cystic lymphangioma usually presents as a large multilocular cystic mass with enhanced walls with multiple thin septa containing uncomplicated fluid on abdominal ultrasonography and contrast enhanced computerized tomography which is very often diagnostic [7]. The differential diagnosis includes cystic lesions of, enteric urogenital or mesothelial origin. Pancreatic pseudocysts from trauma, dermoid cysts or teratomas and cystic degeneration of solid tumours are also to be considered before making this rare diagnosis. Management of intra-abdominal cystic tumours depends on the clinical symptoms, size of the cyst, and the degree of clinical suspicion for malignancy. Imaging usually provides useful information for the planning of treatment. Complete removal of the tumour offers an excellent prognosis and laparoscopic removal of lymphangioma also shown feasible in few reports. We therefore decided to perform a laparotomy and complete excision of the cyst was done. On the other hand, recurrence has been reported in 10% of patients in whom primary resection was incomplete.[9] If the feeding lymphatics are not completely ligated, chylous ascites may also occur. Conclusion: Though intra-abdominal cystic lymphangiomas are very rare, it should be considered in cases of gastric or biliary obstruction where the cause could not be recognized clearly. Reasonable knowledge about these benign lesions will aid in establishing the diagnosis during such instances. Complete surgical excision offers the best chance for cure and should be attempted in all the cases to avoid recurrence. Consent Written informed consent was obtained from the patient for publication of this Case report and any accompanying images. A copy of the written consent is available for review by the Editor of this journal. Competing interests disclosures The authors have no potential or real conflict of interests The authors have no financial support or ties to disclose The authors have no financial or non financial competing interests to declare Authors contributions Suresh Kumar S, Das S A and Kate V diagnosed and managed the case. Suresh Kumar S, Das S A did the literature search. Suresh Kumar S and Das S A collected the images. Suresh Kumar S and Kate V drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. References Hanagiri T, Baba M, Shimabukuro T, Hashimoto M, Takemoto H, Inoue A, Sugitani A, Shirakusa T. Lymphangioma in the small intestine: Report of a case and review of the Japanese literature. Surgery Today 1992; 22: 363-367 Roisman I, Manny J, Fields S, Shiloni E. Intra-abdominal lymphangioma. Br J Surg 1989; 76: 485-489 Benjamin HL Tan, Teegan Lim. Cystic lymphangioma of the lesser sac presenting as acute appendicitis: A case report. Cases J. 2008; 1: 147. Massoud Baghai-Wadji, Azadeh JalalKamali, ToorajReza Mirshekari. Cystic lymphangioma of the lesser sac. Can J Surg. 2006; 49: 292. Fernandez Hurtado I, Bregant J, Mulet Ferragut JF, et al. abdominal cystic lymphangioma. Cir Pediatr. 1998 ; 11: 171-3 Chuang-Wei Chen, Sheng-Der Hsu, Chien-Hua Lin, Ming-Fang Cheng, Jyh-Cherng Yu Cystic lymphangioma of the jejunal mesentery in an adult: A case report. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 5084-5086 Angela D. Levy, Vito Cantisani, Markku Miettinen. Abdominal Lymphangiomas: Imaging Features with Pathologic Correlation. AJR 2004; 182: 1485-1491 8. Kenney B, Smith B, Bensoussan AL. Laparoscopic excision of a cystic lymphangioma. J Laparoendosc Surg. 1996; 6: S99-101. 9. Steyaert H, Guitard J, Moscovici J, Juricic M, Vaysse P, Juskiewenski S: Abdominal cystic lymphangioma in children: benign lesions that can have a proliferative course. J Pediatr Surg 1996, 31:677-680. 1

Eli Wiesels Night and Charles Dickens A Tale of Two Cities :: Synthesis Essays

Eli Wiesel's â€Å"Night† and Charles Dickens' â€Å"A Tale of Two Cities† Life is not always fair. There is no real explanation for this. In almost all constitutions people are created equal but very rarely are all of them treated this way. But before the French revolution happened very few people even had these rights. Then when WW II came around the Jewish people were targeted by the Nazis. They were stripped of all their rights and basically became slaves to the Nazis party. The Nazis tried to rid Europe of the Jewish people and if they had their way eventually the whole world would be free of this religious group. The character that people show through times of adversity can define them individually and as an entire group. In â€Å"Night† Eli Wiesel faces life and death everyday in the Nazis concentration camp. While in â€Å"A tale of two cities† by Charles Dickens, Carton saves Darnay’s life twice once during a trial and another at the guillotine even though Carton resents Darnay shows mans true potential. â€Å"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times† (Dickens), this famous quote can be applied to more than just the opening of A Tale of Two Cities. In this very moment there are great things going on all over the world. Things like scientific discovers and diplomatic resolutions to international problems are being done right now. There are however many problems happening too. Civil wars and ethnic cleansings occurring in Africa the tsunami that devastated many Asian islands were people are struggling to survive. Yet with all of these things man does not give up we fight on through and that could be mans greatest asset. To fight on even though there doesn’t seem to be a light at the end of the tunnel. The most horrific of tragedies ever to happen to man was due to mans evil. The holocaust was a tragedy where over 11 million innocent people were killed for no other reason than there religious beliefs. The most amazing thing though is not the cruelty of man but instead the strength of the human race to fight through even though so many have lost their lives for no reason. Not to say that they never had doubts of whether they were going to make it through. Even the people who before this never had a waiver in their faith had trouble staying strong in belief that God will save them.

Free Narrative Essays - Beauty is Only Skin Deep :: Personal Narrative Essays

Beauty is Only Skin Deep, Ugly Goes to the Bone I am not easily recognized, or rather, I am easily ignored. My style of dress is a cardigan and jeans, or when it's warmer, a T-shirt and jeans. Occasionally I'll wear khakis. I am a very unnoticeable 5'3'' and have eaten just enough chocolate to have a round face and figure. With all of this in mind, when I tapped the shoulder of the up-to-the-minute girl lip-locked with her boyfriend-of-the-day, I was not greeted with a warm smile. I frequently disturbed this couple, since my locker was in Make-Outville. It is interesting, however, that I am the first (technically third, I suppose) to find out what new couple has gotten together. As I was pondering why our lockers are neon orange when our school colors are red and black, I exaggerated the act of dropping each book into the metal box to enjoy the humor of the "you-only-wish-you-could-have-what-I-have" look from the heavily outlined eyes behind me. The irony is - I don't want that. No, I am not a nerd in denial; that is just not what I want. Exchanging saliva with a different guy every week and making sure I look just like Jennifer Love Hewitt or any other three-name girl is not my top priority. Sorry to disappoint you Miss "I can't believe I had to buy a size 3," but you're a little conceited to think everyone wants to be just like you. I'll tell you what I want: I want to go to college. I want to get good grades. I want everyone to be nice. I want a cure for Alzheimer's so my grandmother and my family can have Grandfather back. I want to get to my locker without being scrutinized. Oh my goodness, what an outcast I am. What a nerd! Whatever is the matter with me? I like boys. Simply because I choose to search for someone who makes me happy (and that just happens to take a while) does not automatically prove that I live an "alternate lifestyle." Sorry to disappoint you; I apologize for taking away today's lunchtime conversation. I will tell you what I want in a boy. I want him to open doors for me. Old-fashioned or not, I appreciate that greatly. I want him to be my best friend. I want to be able to go to him with anything and for him to care about what I say.

East Asian Civilization :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Civil Service Examination System of Imperial China served as a qualification system for scholars who wanted to become officials in the Chinese government. Many young men spent their entire lives studying the Four Books, the Five Classics, and memorizing Chinese characters in order to attempt to pass these examinations. The book, China’s Examination Hell, written by Ichisada Miyazaki and translated by Conrad Schirokauer, describes the lengthy, and often rigorous process of taking Civil Service Examinations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book begins by giving an account of how a young boy prepares for the examinations, learning his first Chinese characters at the age of three. Girls could not take the Civil Service Examinations, and from birth were treated in a way such that they would learn to be submissive. Boys began their formal education at age seven. From that point on, they spent every moment memorizing the Four Books, which included the Analects, Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean, and the Five Classics, which included the Book of Changes, the Book of Documents, the Book of Poetry, the Book of Rites, and the Tso Chuan. Young men had the opportunity to take their first Civil Service Examination around the age of fourteen or fifteen, and particularly bright males would most likely continue taking different levels of examinations for the rest of their lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Also described in the book are the hardships endured by both the candidates for examination and the examiners themselves. The test-taking compounds were not very conductive to rational thinking, as each man was assigned a small, door-less cubicle in which he had to spend three days and two nights at a time. The examiners, by the end of an examination session, had thousands of papers needing to be graded. As a result, even the smallest mistake, such as a stain on the paper or a misprinted character would lead to failure of the examination. The book describes in detail how the Chinese believed in, and in some cases relied on, supernatural intervention in passing the examinations. There are many accounts throughout the book telling about candidates and examiners alike being visited by ghosts, and dreaming about the King of the Dead and the King of Heaven. It was believed that if a candidate was virtuous and performed good deeds, he would be rewarded by passing the Ci vil Service Examinations. Conversely, if a candidate did not have a good moral character, he would fail the examinations, regardless of the quality of his work. East Asian Civilization :: essays research papers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Civil Service Examination System of Imperial China served as a qualification system for scholars who wanted to become officials in the Chinese government. Many young men spent their entire lives studying the Four Books, the Five Classics, and memorizing Chinese characters in order to attempt to pass these examinations. The book, China’s Examination Hell, written by Ichisada Miyazaki and translated by Conrad Schirokauer, describes the lengthy, and often rigorous process of taking Civil Service Examinations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book begins by giving an account of how a young boy prepares for the examinations, learning his first Chinese characters at the age of three. Girls could not take the Civil Service Examinations, and from birth were treated in a way such that they would learn to be submissive. Boys began their formal education at age seven. From that point on, they spent every moment memorizing the Four Books, which included the Analects, Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean, and the Five Classics, which included the Book of Changes, the Book of Documents, the Book of Poetry, the Book of Rites, and the Tso Chuan. Young men had the opportunity to take their first Civil Service Examination around the age of fourteen or fifteen, and particularly bright males would most likely continue taking different levels of examinations for the rest of their lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Also described in the book are the hardships endured by both the candidates for examination and the examiners themselves. The test-taking compounds were not very conductive to rational thinking, as each man was assigned a small, door-less cubicle in which he had to spend three days and two nights at a time. The examiners, by the end of an examination session, had thousands of papers needing to be graded. As a result, even the smallest mistake, such as a stain on the paper or a misprinted character would lead to failure of the examination. The book describes in detail how the Chinese believed in, and in some cases relied on, supernatural intervention in passing the examinations. There are many accounts throughout the book telling about candidates and examiners alike being visited by ghosts, and dreaming about the King of the Dead and the King of Heaven. It was believed that if a candidate was virtuous and performed good deeds, he would be rewarded by passing the Ci vil Service Examinations. Conversely, if a candidate did not have a good moral character, he would fail the examinations, regardless of the quality of his work.

Hofstede’s Model Of Organisational Culture

ABSTRACT Organizational culture has become the buzzword in popular management with many experts suggesting it as an important determinant for organizational success. Management researchers have been quick to point out the impact that organizational culture may have on the effectiveness of the organization and have called for an increase in the attention paid to organizational culture. With more emphasis being placed on organizational culture, it becomes important to understand the appeal of this concept and examine its impact on management within the organization This paper thus explores on the concept of â€Å"organizational culture† and examines its impact on behaviours and management of the organization. This will involve identifying one associated mode or theory and evaluating or determining the extent to which the chosen model plays a part in defining the style of management. A case study of Sony Ericsson will also be employed to help illustrate the application of hofstede’s model of organizational culture. The study will also identify limitations of this model and the strengths that have enabled it to be used as a basis for most research analyses. INTRODUCTION Organizational culture has become the buzzword in popular management with many experts suggesting it as an important determinant for organizational success (Schein 1999). While the association between organizational culture and organizational success is far from certain, it is obvious that each organization has its own unique social structure which drives much of the individual behavior within that organization. Management researchers have been quick to point out the impact that organizational culture may have on the effectiveness of the organization and have called for an increase in the attention paid to organizational culture (Siehl & Martin 1998). With more emphasis being placed on organizational culture, it is important to understand the appeal of this concept and examine its impact on management within the organization. This study thus explores on the concept of organizational culture and examines its impact on management style. This will involve identifying one associated mode or theory and evaluating or determining the extent to which the chosen model plays a part in defining the style of management. In this regard, Hofstede’s ideas will form the basis of our analysis of organizational culture. WHAT IS..â€Å"CULTURE†? The term culture has been given varied set of definitions by various scholars. Kroeber & Kluckholn (1952), for example, defined culture as consisting of patterns of behaviour acquired and transmitted through symbols, and which constitute distinctive achievement of human groups including their embodiment in artifacts. Hofstede (1980), on the other hand, defined culture as the collective programming of the mind which differentiates members of one human group in the society from the rest. While Symington (1983) defined it as a complex whole which include belief, knowledge, morals, art, customs, capabilities and habits acquired in the society. These definitions suggest culture to consist of a set of value systems that are shared equally by members in the society and which binds people together. With the above conceptualization of culture, we can now define what we mean by organizational culture. ORGANIZAITONAL CULTURE Organizational culture can simply be defined as a set of values, assumptions and beliefs that define the behaviours and style of management in an organization (O’Reilly et.al, 1991). There are three main sources of influence believed to interact to create organizational culture. These are the beliefs and values held by the leaders of the organization, the characteristics of the industry in which the organization is within, and the broader society in which the organization operates (O’Reilly et.al, 1991). The most influential model used by management researchers and which has formed the basis of most analyses of organizational culture is Hofstede’s model. While most noted for his groundbreaking work on dimensions of national culture, Hofstede also identified six dimensions of organizational culture which can be used in defining the style of management in an organization.Process oriented vs goal orientedThe process oriented vs result oriented dimension is concerned with the effectiveness of the organization. A key feature of a process oriented culture is the means or rather the way in which work has to be conducted. While in a result oriented culture, emphasis is placed on the goals of the organization. That is, employees are primarily out to achieve specific organizational goals even if the risks involved are substantial (Hofstede 2001).Parochial vs professionalThis dimension reflects the internal and external frame of the organization (Hofstede 2001). In a local culture the id entity of the employees is with the immediate manager. Hence employees within this culture are internally focused and directed and there is also a strong social control. The converse is true in a professional culture where the identity of the employees is largely determined by the profession and content of the job.Open system vs closed systemThe open system vs closed system dimension reflects the communication climate of the organization (Hofstede 2001). For an open system, new employees are welcomed and there is the belief that everyone fits well in the organization. While for a closed system, it is difficult to join and it is believed that only a certain kind of individuals may fit in the organization.Employee oriented vs job orientedThis dimension relates to the management philosophy in the organization. In an employee oriented organizational culture, concern is mainly on employee satisfaction. The staff members feel that their own personal problems and welfare is taken into acco unt by the organization. While for a job oriented organizational culture, work is characterized by heavy pressure to perform the specific task at the expense of the employee (Hofstede 2001).Tighter control vs loose controlThis dimension relates to structuring, control and discipline in the organization. A tight control culture is characterized by seriousness and punctuality while the features of a loose control culture are casual and improvisation (Hofstede 2001). Examples of organizations that are often found within tighter controls are banks and pharmaceutical companies while those found in loose control are research laboratories and advertising agencies (Hofstede 2001).Normative vs pragmaticThis dimension reflects on the methods employed by organizations when dealing with the environment in general and customers in particular. It describes the level of â€Å"customer oreintation†. Pragmatic cultures are flexible and more market driven while normative cultures are rigid and often emphasize on following applicable laws and rules (Hofstede 2001). Hofstede labeled organizations involved in the sale of services as pragmatic while those engaged in application of laws and rules as normative. CRITICISMS OF HOFSTEDE’S MODEL Hofstede’s ground breaking work on culture has indeed provided valuable insights into the management styles and dynamics of cross cultural relationships. However, his highly influential findings have not been without criticisms. A number of academics have discredited his work in part or whole. Critics have argued that survey was not an important instrument that could be used in accurately determining and measuring the culture of organizations (Jones 2007). A survey of a set of limited questions certainly cannot adequately and comprehensively provide an in-depth understanding of culture of an organization. In response to this criticism, Hofstede argued that survey was one method and certainly not the only method that was used. Hofstede’s model has also been criticized on the basis that the five or six dimensions did not provide sufficient information about cultural differences (Jones 2007). In this regard, Hofstede agreed that his analysis was too narrow to credibly argue for the universal validity and sufficiency of the six dimensions of organizational culture that he identified. And in fact, suggested for additional dimensions to his original work. He also noted that some of the six dimensions that he identified may be less useful when analyzing other types of organizations in other countries (Jones 2007). A third criticism is that Hofstede’s work is seen as outdated, especially with the rapid changes in the global environment (Jones 2007). This critique has further been put forward by Holden (2002) who points out that the data used by Hofstede in his dimensions of organizational culture seem to have been gathered over 30 years ago and is therefore no longer applicable to the modern day world. In response to this criticism, Hofstede (1998) pointed out that a number of recent replications had confirmed his findings. Hofstede’s model is also criticized on grounds of his one company approach. Hofstede’s analysis supposed that a single IBM organizational culture could be used to make inferences about the entire world wide organizational cultures (Jones 2007). A study fixated on one company certainly cannot be used to make inferences about the entire world wide organizational cultures. The validity of his dimensions of organizational culture has thus been questioned and his model considered to be non-comprehensive as the study was based on data collected from a single company using questionnaires that lacked academic foundation. Critics have also argued that Hofstede failed to recognize the diversity in his analysis of IBM culture (Jones 2007). He ignored extensive literature which suggested that there were multiple, dissenting and emergent cultures in an organization. If we are to ignore the assumption of a single culture in IBM and acknowledge the diversity in culture at IBM, then his analysis is likely to collapse. After years of publication of his analysis on organizational culture based on the IBM survey data, Hofstede begun to acknowledge the presence of cultural diversity within and between units in the same organization. However, despite recognizing flaws in his work, Hofstede fails to admit error or weakness in his analysis. Accepting that organizations had multiple cultures as opposed to his assumption of a single culture would seem to undermine a crucial part of his analysis. ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF HOFSTEDE’S MODEL Despite these criticisms, Hofstedes work is widely acknowledged and used by many scholars and practictioners due to its mainly appealing attributes. Sondergaard (1994) noted that hofstede’s analysis on corporate culture received 1,036 citations in comparison with another highly regarded study by Miles & Snow (1978) which only received 200 citations. Moreover, a number of researchers have replicated Hofstede’s study including Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (1997). Some of the strengths that have enabled it to be used as the basis of most research analyses include: Relevance: – Hofstede’s discoveries came at a time when there was very little known about culture and businesses were just globalizing and were in need of advice (Jones 2007). Hofstede’s framework exceeded this demand and became widely accepted by many scholars and practitioners. His work offered guidance to managers who were expanding their businesses as cultures were clashing and creating difficulties (Jones 2007). Rigour – Hofstede model is based on a rigorous research design with systematic data and is built on a coherent theory (Jones 2007). Simplicity: – Knudsen & Loloma (2007) argues that hofstede’s model has remained influential and successful due to its simplicity of appliance. His analysis of culture offered a simple way of understanding organizational culture. The six dimensions that define organizational culture put forth by Hofstede made it easier for managers and researchers to understand corporate culture without the need of ex pert knowledge. Relative accuracy: – strength of Hofstede’s model is also reflected in its level of accuracy. Majority of the replications conducted by other researchers have confirmed Hofstede’s findings. Four replications have concurred fully with Hofstede’s findings while fifteen showed partial confirmation (Jones 2007). Moreover, Hofstede’s framework has become very influential in management studies and is most widely cited in social sciences. His work remains instrumental in the implementation of various business systems in organizations including entrepreneurial behaviour, workgroup performance and dynamics, leadership styles, participative management and management control systems among many others (Jones 2007). A CASE STUDY OF SONY ERICSSON In order to explore on the extent to which hofstede model plays a part in defining management style, we will conduct a case study of Sony Ericsson, a joint venture between Sony and Ericsson. Sony Ericsson has its headquarters and all of its management based in the UK. The firm aims at becoming the most innovative and attractive mobile brand globally (Cooper & Ross 2007). ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IN SONY ERICSSON Organizational culture has long been acknowledged as an important factor for driving behaviour, decision making and shaping management style at Sony Ericsson. With regard to the rules and procedures, Sony Ericson follows a certain procedure laid down by the firm (Cooper & Ross 2007). While it is not a requirement for employees to follow strict dress code and office timings, it is mandatory for employees at Sony Ericsson to abide by the business ethics and code of conduct (Cooper & Ross 2007). Since the firm does not follow a strict dress code and office timings, it can be concluded that the organization employs a loose control culture. With regard to employee evaluation and performance, the staffs at Sony Ericsson are not differentiated on their individual performance and are allowed to participate in decision making except at the higher level which requires the executive management team only (Cooper & Ross 2007). Sony Ericsson’s corporate culture is also more employee oriented with managers more concerned on the welfare and employee satisfaction. Sony Ericson’s organizational culture is also very professional as employees are subjected to scrutiny checks prior to their appointment to ensure that individuals hired are competent and have a certain level of experience deemed necessary for the position (Tayeb 2001). With regard to normative and pragmatic approach, the firm is seen in between, as its organizational culture is both normative and pragmatic oriented. While Sony Ericsson focuses on meeting customer and market needs, the firm also adheres to certain rules and guidelines in meeting these needs (Tayeb 2001). Clearly, Hofstede’s model plays a significant part in defining the management style and organizational behaviour at Sony Ericsson. CONCLUSION There is no doubt that Hofstede’s model is one of the most widely acknowledged and used piece of research. His ground breaking work on culture has indeed provided valuable insights into the management styles and dynamics of cross cultural relationships as evident in Sony Ericsson. A number of academics have however discredited his work in part or whole. Although Hofstede’s work on culture has been heavily criticized on grounds of his one company approach, survey methodological approach, and for fewer dimensions and his assumption of a single organizational culture; majority of his findings have had remarkable effect on practitioners and researchers and continue to guide multi-national practitioners into the â€Å"global† future. While there is a high level of controversy in his analysis of culture, there is no doubt that his study is one of the most influential in the analysis of organizational culture. REFERENCE Hofstede, G., 2001. Culture’s consequences. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications Hofstede, G., 1998. â€Å"Attitudes, Values and Organizational Culture: Disentangling the concepts.† Organization Studies 19(3): 477. Hofstede, G., 1980. Culture’s Consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D. D., and G. Sanders, 1990. â€Å"Measuring Organizational Cultures: A Qualitative and Quantitative Study across Twenty Cases†. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(2), 286-316. Holden, N., 2002. Cross-Cultural Management – A Knowledge Management Perspective. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Jones, M.L., 2007. Hofstede – culturally questionableOxford, UK. Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University press Knudsen & Loloma, 2007. The consequences of â€Å"culture’s consequences†. A critical approach to culture as collective programming applied to cross-cultural crews. Journal of Maritime Affairs. Vol . 8 (2), pp.105 -121 Miles, R and C. Snow, 1978. Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. O’Reilly, C., Chatman, J., and D. Caldwell, 1991. â€Å"People and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit†. Academy of Management Journal, 34:487-516. Rose, R., 2008. Organizational culture as a root of performance improvement: research and recommendations. Contemporary management research. Vol.4, p. 43-46 Schein, E., 1999. The corporate culture survival guide. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Schwartz, S.H., 1994. â€Å"Beyond individualism/collectivism†. In: Kim, U., Triandis, H.C. et al. (eds) Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method, and Applications: Vol. 18, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Siehl, C. & J. Martin, 1998. â€Å"Measuring Organizational Culture: Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods†. In: Jones, M.O, et al. (eds), Inside Organizations: Understanding the Human Dimension, Newbury Park, CA, Sage Publications, pp.79-103. Sinha, 2000. Patterns of work culture. Sage publications Sondergaard, M., 1994. â€Å"Hofstede’s consequences: A study of reviews, citations and replications.† Organization Studies 15(3): 447. Symington, J. W., 1983. Learn Latin America’s Culture. New York Times. Tayeb, M. H., 2001. International Business Partnership. New York: Palgrave. Trompenaars, F. and C. Hampden-Turner, 1997. Riding the waves of culture: understanding cultural diversity in business. London, Nicholas Brearley.

Slavery in Renaissance

Europe in the 14th to 16th century was marked by Renaissance. Renaissance which means â€Å"rebirth† began in Italy and later on expanded into different countries like Engalnd, France, including Germany. Within those three centuries, Renaissance reached other parts of Europe. In these years, the focus of study turned into morality of human actions rather than the usual religious issues(Encarta, 2007). It was in this era when Humanism was introduced which is based on the Philiosophy that all people are rational beings thus, everyone possesss the capacity of goodness and the truth. Furthermore, Humanism gives emphsais to the worth of an individual. While the Italian Renaissance represents the best of Europe, there are different practices that were made that conflicts Humanism. Renaissance was the same period wherein rediscovery of slavery happened (Hooker, 1996). Slavery dates back to the pre-historic times but it was in the 12th century when Human Slave Labor was rediscovered in Europe. On 1444, Portugal started to import slaves due to lack of agricultural workers while Spain followed in the 16th century and England joined the trade in the latter part of the 16th century. Hooker, 1996) Slavery was defined as an involuntary or forced form of human servitude wherein most services are obtained through force and slaves were considered as property of owner. These slaves are considered as things and they were being traded, bought, sold or payment fo0r a debt and also serve as a gift. Slaves during these times were obtained either by raid of conquest of other people wihin or from other society. During Renaissance, the fast growing Italian City-Estates demand for more slaves and was later on considered as the largest consumer of human slave. Slaves in Italy are mostly domestic servants and every wealthy family in the city have atleast one slave for household. (Hooker, 1996) While Humanists were proposing to educate the whole person of an individual, including the physical and moral development aside from intellectual achievement, a new type of slave was introduced in the purpose of economical reasons. Plantation slaves were the cheapest labor that is possible during that time. (Encarta, 2007) The existence of slavery during the Renaissance wherein the emphasis on the worth of people was highly regarded, was quite conflicting to each other but, it is evident in the accounts of Renaissance that slavery is really visible and there is a very large amount of victims of slavery. This Human Slave Trade and the presence of the â€Å"Plantation S;aves† was due to the growing needs of the plantations especially the sugar plantations for workers that will be paid in a small amount. Plantation Slave was caused by the economic stability of Italy and the growing plantations. Hence, the conflict on slavery and humanism started. (Hooker, 1996)